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A skull discovered in 1929 established human presence in San Diego about 12,000 years ago. The Kumeyaay Indians, present at the time of Cabrillo’s landing, lived in small, organized villages. Hunters and gatherers, they subsisted on acorns, berries, and small prey.

Cabrillo (see Cabrillo Statue) was the first European to arrive at San Diego Bay. The Spanish believed that Baja and Alta California were part of a larger island, “Isla California,” named after a legendary land in a popular Spanish 15th-century romance. California became part of the Spanish Empire for the next 279 years.

Fearing the loss of California, Spain sent an expedition, led by Gaspar de Portolá and Franciscan friar Junípero Serra (see Mission San Diego de Alcalá), to establish military posts and missions to Christianize the Indians. Disastrous for the Indians, the settlement survived and a city slowly took hold.

After gaining independence, Mexico secularized the California missions and distributed their land to the politically faithful. The resulting rancho system of land management lasted into the 20th century. Without Spanish trade restrictions, ports were open to all and San Diego became a center for the hide trade.

The Mexican era only lasted until 1848. One bloody battle between the Americans and Californios (see Mission San Diego de Alcalá) was fought at San Pasqual (see San Pasqual Battlefield State Historic Park). With a payment of $15 million and the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, California became part of the US and then later its 31st state.

Horton realized an investment opportunity to develop a city closer to the water than Old Town. He bought 960 acres for $265, then sold and gave lots to anyone who could build a brick house. Property values soared, especially after a fire in 1872 in Old Town. “New Town” became today’s San Diego.

Interest was renewed in San Diego when the Transcontinental Railroad finally reached town. Real estate speculators poured in, infrastructure was built, and the future looked bright. However, Los Angeles appeared even more promising, and San Diego’s population, which had risen from 5,000 to 40,000 in two years, shrank to 16,000.

To celebrate the opening of the Panama Canal and draw economic attention to the first US port of call on the West Coast, Balboa Park (see Balboa Park) was transformed into a brilliant attraction. Fair animals found homes at the zoo (see San Diego Zoo) and Spanish-Colonial buildings became park landmarks.

A new Balboa Park exposition was launched to help alleviate effects of the Great Depression. The architect Richard Requa designed buildings inspired by Aztec, Mayan, and Pueblo Indian themes.

The founding of the aircraft industry, spurred by the presence of Ryan Aviation and Convair, gave San Diego an enduring industrial base. After Pearl Harbor, the headquarters of the Pacific Fleet moved here. The harbor was enlarged, and hospitals, camps, and housing transformed the city’s landscape.